4.5. Data Types
PostgreSQL has a rich set of native data types available to users. Users can add new types to PostgreSQL using the sql-createtype command.
datatype-table shows all the built-in general-purpose data types. Most of the alternative names listed in the Aliases column are the names used internally by PostgreSQL for historical reasons. In addition, some internally used or deprecated types are available, but are not listed here.
Data Types
Примечание
Compatibility
The following types (or spellings thereof) are specified by SQL: bigint, bit, bit varying, boolean, char, character varying, character, varchar, date, double precision, integer, interval, numeric, decimal, real, smallint, time (with or without time zone), timestamp (with or without time zone), xml.
Each data type has an external representation determined by its input and output functions. Many of the built-in types have obvious external formats. However, several types are either unique to PostgreSQL, such as geometric paths, or have several possible formats, such as the date and time types. Some of the input and output functions are not invertible, i.e., the result of an output function might lose accuracy when compared to the original input.
4.5.1. Numeric Types
Numeric types consist of two-, four-, and eight-byte integers, four- and eight-byte floating-point numbers, and selectable-precision decimals. datatype-numeric-table lists the available types.
Numeric Types
The syntax of constants for the numeric types is described in sql-syntax-constants. The numeric types have a full set of corresponding arithmetic operators and functions. Refer to functions for more information. The following sections describe the types in detail.
4.5.1.1. Integer Types
The types smallint, integer, and bigint store whole numbers, that is, numbers without fractional components, of various ranges. Attempts to store values outside of the allowed range will result in an error.
The type integer is the common choice, as it offers the best balance between range, storage size, and performance. The smallint type is generally only used if disk space is at a premium. The bigint type is designed to be used when the range of the integer type is insufficient.
SQL only specifies the integer types integer (or int), smallint, and bigint. The type names int2, int4, and int8 are extensions, which are also used by some other SQL database systems.
4.5.1.2. Arbitrary Precision Numbers
The type numeric can store numbers with a very large number of digits. It is especially recommended for storing monetary amounts and other quantities where exactness is required. Calculations with numeric values yield exact results where possible, e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication. However, calculations on numeric values are very slow compared to the integer types, or to the floating-point types described in the next section.
We use the following terms below: The precision of a numeric is the total count of significant digits in the whole number, that is, the number of digits to both sides of the decimal point. The scale of a numeric is the count of decimal digits in the fractional part, to the right of the decimal point. So the number 23.5141 has a precision of 6 and a scale of 4. Integers can be considered to have a scale of zero.
Both the maximum precision and the maximum scale of a numeric column can be configured. To declare a column of type numeric use the syntax:
NUMERIC(precision, scale)
The precision must be positive, while the scale may be positive or
negative (see below). Alternatively:
NUMERIC(precision)
selects a scale of 0. Specifying:
NUMERIC
without any precision or scale creates an unconstrained
numeric column in which numeric values of any length can be stored, up to the implementation limits. A column of this kind will not coerce input values to any particular scale, whereas numeric columns with a declared scale will coerce input values to that scale. (The SQL standard requires a default scale of 0, i.e., coercion to integer precision. We find this a bit useless. If you’re concerned about portability, always specify the precision and scale explicitly.)
Примечание
The maximum precision that can be explicitly specified in a numeric type declaration is 1000. An unconstrained numeric column is subject to the limits described in datatype-numeric-table.
If the scale of a value to be stored is greater than the declared scale of the column, the system will round the value to the specified number of fractional digits. Then, if the number of digits to the left of the decimal point exceeds the declared precision minus the declared scale, an error is raised. For example, a column declared as
NUMERIC(3, 1)
will round values to 1 decimal place and can store values between
-99.9 and 99.9, inclusive.
Beginning in PostgreSQL 15, it is allowed to declare a numeric column with a negative scale. Then values will be rounded to the left of the decimal point. The precision still represents the maximum number of non-rounded digits. Thus, a column declared as
NUMERIC(2, -3)
will round values to the nearest thousand and can store values
between -99000 and 99000, inclusive. It is also allowed to declare a scale larger than the declared precision. Such a column can only hold fractional values, and it requires the number of zero digits just to the right of the decimal point to be at least the declared scale minus the declared precision. For example, a column declared as
NUMERIC(3, 5)
will round values to 5 decimal places and can store values between
-0.00999 and 0.00999, inclusive.
Примечание
PostgreSQL permits the scale in a numeric type declaration to be any value in the range -1000 to 1000. However, the SQL standard requires the scale to be in the range 0 to precision. Using scales outside that range may not be portable to other database systems.
Numeric values are physically stored without any extra leading or trailing zeroes. Thus, the declared precision and scale of a column are maximums, not fixed allocations. (In this sense the numeric type is more akin to varchar(n) than to char(n).) The actual storage requirement is two bytes for each group of four decimal digits, plus three to eight bytes overhead.
In addition to ordinary numeric values, the numeric type has several special values: :: Infinity**-Infinity****NaN** These are adapted from the IEEE 754 standard, and represent infinity, negative infinity, and not-a-number, respectively. When writing these values as constants in an SQL command, you must put quotes around them, for example UPDATE table SET x = „-Infinity“. On input, these strings are recognized in a case-insensitive manner. The infinity values can alternatively be spelled inf and -inf.
The infinity values behave as per mathematical expectations. For example, Infinity plus any finite value equals Infinity, as does Infinity plus Infinity; but Infinity minus Infinity yields NaN (not a number), because it has no well-defined interpretation. Note that an infinity can only be stored in an unconstrained numeric column, because it notionally exceeds any finite precision limit.
The NaN (not a number) value is used to represent undefined calculational results. In general, any operation with a NaN input yields another NaN. The only exception is when the operation’s other inputs are such that the same output would be obtained if the NaN were to be replaced by any finite or infinite numeric value; then, that output value is used for NaN too. (An example of this principle is that NaN raised to the zero power yields one.)
Примечание
In most implementations of the not-a-number concept, NaN is not considered equal to any other numeric value (including NaN). In order to allow numeric values to be sorted and used in tree-based indexes, PostgreSQL treats NaN values as equal, and greater than all non-NaN values.
The types decimal and numeric are equivalent. Both types are part of the SQL standard.
When rounding values, the numeric type rounds ties away from zero, while (on most machines) the real and double precision types round ties to the nearest even number. For example:
SELECT x,
round(x::numeric) AS num_round,
round(x::double precision) AS dbl_round
FROM generate_series(-3.5, 3.5, 1) as x;
x | num_round | dbl_round
------+-----------+-----------
-3.5 | -4 | -4
-2.5 | -3 | -2
-1.5 | -2 | -2
-0.5 | -1 | -0
0.5 | 1 | 0
1.5 | 2 | 2
2.5 | 3 | 2
3.5 | 4 | 4
(8 rows)
4.5.1.3. Floating-Point Types
The data types real and double precision are inexact, variable-precision numeric types. On all currently supported platforms, these types are implementations of IEEE Standard 754 for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (single and double precision, respectively), to the extent that the underlying processor, operating system, and compiler support it.
Inexact means that some values cannot be converted exactly to the internal format and are stored as approximations, so that storing and retrieving a value might show slight discrepancies. Managing these errors and how they propagate through calculations is the subject of an entire branch of mathematics and computer science and will not be discussed here, except for the following points:
If you require exact storage and calculations (such as for monetary amounts), use the numeric type instead.
If you want to do complicated calculations with these types for anything important, especially if you rely on certain behavior in boundary cases (infinity, underflow), you should evaluate the implementation carefully.
Comparing two floating-point values for equality might not always work as expected.
On all currently supported platforms, the real type has a range of around 1E-37 to 1E+37 with a precision of at least 6 decimal digits. The double precision type has a range of around 1E-307 to 1E+308 with a precision of at least 15 digits. Values that are too large or too small will cause an error. Rounding might take place if the precision of an input number is too high. Numbers too close to zero that are not representable as distinct from zero will cause an underflow error.
By default, floating point values are output in text form in their shortest precise decimal representation; the decimal value produced is closer to the true stored binary value than to any other value representable in the same binary precision. (However, the output value is currently never exactly midway between two representable values, in order to avoid a widespread bug where input routines do not properly respect the round-to-nearest-even rule.) This value will use at most 17 significant decimal digits for float8 values, and at most 9 digits for float4 values.
Примечание
This shortest-precise output format is much faster to generate than the historical rounded format.
For compatibility with output generated by older versions of PostgreSQL, and to allow the output precision to be reduced, the guc-extra-float-digits parameter can be used to select rounded decimal output instead. Setting a value of 0 restores the previous default of rounding the value to 6 (for float4) or 15 (for float8) significant decimal digits. Setting a negative value reduces the number of digits further; for example -2 would round output to 4 or 13 digits respectively.
Any value of guc-extra-float-digits greater than 0 selects the shortest-precise format.
Примечание
Applications that wanted precise values have historically had to set guc-extra-float-digits to 3 to obtain them. For maximum compatibility between versions, they should continue to do so.
In addition to ordinary numeric values, the floating-point types have several special values: :: Infinity**-Infinity****NaN** These represent the IEEE 754 special values infinity, negative infinity, and not-a-number, respectively. When writing these values as constants in an SQL command, you must put quotes around them, for example UPDATE table SET x = „-Infinity“. On input, these strings are recognized in a case-insensitive manner. The infinity values can alternatively be spelled inf and -inf.
Примечание
IEEE 754 specifies that NaN should not compare equal to any other floating-point value (including NaN). In order to allow floating-point values to be sorted and used in tree-based indexes, PostgreSQL treats NaN values as equal, and greater than all non-NaN values.
PostgreSQL also supports the SQL-standard notations float and float(p) for specifying inexact numeric types. Here, p specifies the minimum acceptable precision in binary digits. PostgreSQL accepts float(1) to float(24) as selecting the real type, while float(25) to float(53) select double precision. Values of p outside the allowed range draw an error. float with no precision specified is taken to mean double precision.
4.5.1.4. Serial Types
Примечание
This section describes a PostgreSQL-specific way to create an autoincrementing column. Another way is to use the SQL-standard identity column feature, described at sql-createtable.
The data types smallserial, serial and bigserial are not true types, but merely a notational convenience for creating unique identifier columns (similar to the AUTO_INCREMENT property supported by some other databases). In the current implementation, specifying:
CREATE TABLE tablename (
colname SERIAL
);
is equivalent to specifying:
CREATE SEQUENCE tablename_colname_seq AS integer;
CREATE TABLE tablename (
colname integer NOT NULL DEFAULT nextval('tablename_colname_seq')
);
ALTER SEQUENCE tablename_colname_seq OWNED BY tablename.colname;
Thus, we have created an integer column and arranged for its default values to be assigned from a sequence generator. A NOT NULL constraint is applied to ensure that a null value cannot be inserted. (In most cases you would also want to attach a UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY constraint to prevent duplicate values from being inserted by accident, but this is not automatic.) Lastly, the sequence is marked as owned by the column, so that it will be dropped if the column or table is dropped.
Примечание
Because smallserial, serial and bigserial are implemented using sequences, there may be «holes» or gaps in the sequence of values which appears in the column, even if no rows are ever deleted. A value allocated from the sequence is still «used up» even if a row containing that value is never successfully inserted into the table column. This may happen, for example, if the inserting transaction rolls back. See nextval() in functions-sequence for details.
To insert the next value of the sequence into the serial column, specify that the serial column should be assigned its default value. This can be done either by excluding the column from the list of columns in the INSERT statement, or through the use of the DEFAULT key word.
The type names serial and serial4 are equivalent: both create integer columns. The type names bigserial and serial8 work the same way, except that they create a bigint column. bigserial should be used if you anticipate the use of more than 231 identifiers over the lifetime of the table. The type names smallserial and serial2 also work the same way, except that they create a smallint column.
The sequence created for a serial column is automatically dropped when the owning column is dropped. You can drop the sequence without dropping the column, but this will force removal of the column default expression.
4.5.2. Monetary Types
The money type stores a currency amount with a fixed fractional precision; see datatype-money-table. The fractional precision is determined by the database’s guc-lc-monetary setting. The range shown in the table assumes there are two fractional digits. Input is accepted in a variety of formats, including integer and floating-point literals, as well as typical currency formatting, such as „$1,000.00“. Output is generally in the latter form but depends on the locale.
Monetary Types
Since the output of this data type is locale-sensitive, it might not work to load money data into a database that has a different setting of lc_monetary. To avoid problems, before restoring a dump into a new database make sure lc_monetary has the same or equivalent value as in the database that was dumped.
Values of the numeric, int, and bigint data types can be cast to money. Conversion from the real and double precision data types can be done by casting to numeric first, for example:
SELECT '12.34'::float8::numeric::money;
However, this is not recommended. Floating point numbers should not be
used to handle money due to the potential for rounding errors.
A money value can be cast to numeric without loss of precision. Conversion to other types could potentially lose precision, and must also be done in two stages:
SELECT '52093.89'::money::numeric::float8;
Division of a money value by an integer value is performed with truncation of the fractional part towards zero. To get a rounded result, divide by a floating-point value, or cast the money value to numeric before dividing and back to money afterwards. (The latter is preferable to avoid risking precision loss.) When a money value is divided by another money value, the result is double precision (i.e., a pure number, not money); the currency units cancel each other out in the division.
4.5.3. Character Types
Character Types
datatype-character-table shows the general-purpose character types available in PostgreSQL.
SQL defines two primary character types: character varying(n) and character(n), where n is a positive integer. Both of these types can store strings up to n characters (not bytes) in length. An attempt to store a longer string into a column of these types will result in an error, unless the excess characters are all spaces, in which case the string will be truncated to the maximum length. (This somewhat bizarre exception is required by the SQL standard.) If the string to be stored is shorter than the declared length, values of type character will be space-padded; values of type character varying will simply store the shorter string.
If one explicitly casts a value to character varying(n) or character(n), then an over-length value will be truncated to n characters without raising an error. (This too is required by the SQL standard.)
The notations varchar(n) and char(n) are aliases for character varying(n) and character(n), respectively. If specified, the length must be greater than zero and cannot exceed 10485760. character without length specifier is equivalent to character(1). If character varying is used without length specifier, the type accepts strings of any size. The latter is a PostgreSQL extension.
In addition, PostgreSQL provides the text type, which stores strings of any length. Although the type text is not in the SQL standard, several other SQL database management systems have it as well.
Values of type character are physically padded with spaces to the specified width n, and are stored and displayed that way. However, trailing spaces are treated as semantically insignificant and disregarded when comparing two values of type character. In collations where whitespace is significant, this behavior can produce unexpected results; for example SELECT „a „::CHAR(2) collate «C» < E’an“::CHAR(2) returns true, even though C locale would consider a space to be greater than a newline. Trailing spaces are removed when converting a character value to one of the other string types. Note that trailing spaces are semantically significant in character varying and text values, and when using pattern matching, that is LIKE and regular expressions.
The characters that can be stored in any of these data types are determined by the database character set, which is selected when the database is created. Regardless of the specific character set, the character with code zero (sometimes called NUL) cannot be stored. For more information refer to multibyte.
The storage requirement for a short string (up to 126 bytes) is 1 byte plus the actual string, which includes the space padding in the case of character. Longer strings have 4 bytes of overhead instead of 1. Long strings are compressed by the system automatically, so the physical requirement on disk might be less. Very long values are also stored in background tables so that they do not interfere with rapid access to shorter column values. In any case, the longest possible character string that can be stored is about 1 GB. (The maximum value that will be allowed for n in the data type declaration is less than that. It wouldn’t be useful to change this because with multibyte character encodings the number of characters and bytes can be quite different. If you desire to store long strings with no specific upper limit, use text or character varying without a length specifier, rather than making up an arbitrary length limit.)
Совет
There is no performance difference among these three types, apart from increased storage space when using the blank-padded type, and a few extra CPU cycles to check the length when storing into a length-constrained column. While character(n) has performance advantages in some other database systems, there is no such advantage in PostgreSQL; in fact character(n) is usually the slowest of the three because of its additional storage costs. In most situations text or character varying should be used instead.
Refer to sql-syntax-strings for information about the syntax of string literals, and to functions for information about available operators and functions.
CREATE TABLE test1 (a character(4));
INSERT INTO test1 VALUES ('ok');
SELECT a, char_length(a) FROM test1; -- id="co.datatype-char"
a | char_length
------+-------------
ok | 2
CREATE TABLE test2 (b varchar(5));
INSERT INTO test2 VALUES ('ok');
INSERT INTO test2 VALUES ('good ');
INSERT INTO test2 VALUES ('too long');ERROR: value too long for type character varying(5)INSERT INTO test2 VALUES ('too long'::varchar(5)); -- explicit truncation
SELECT b, char_length(b) FROM test2;
b | char_length
-------+-------------
ok | 2
good | 5
too l | 5
The char_length function is discussed in functions-string.
There are two other fixed-length character types in PostgreSQL, shown in datatype-character-special-table. These are not intended for general-purpose use, only for use in the internal system catalogs. The name type is used to store identifiers. Its length is currently defined as 64 bytes (63 usable characters plus terminator) but should be referenced using the constant NAMEDATALEN in C source code. The length is set at compile time (and is therefore adjustable for special uses); the default maximum length might change in a future release. The type «char» (note the quotes) is different from char(1) in that it only uses one byte of storage, and therefore can store only a single ASCII character. It is used in the system catalogs as a simplistic enumeration type.
Special Character Types
4.5.4. Binary Data Types
The bytea data type allows storage of binary strings; see datatype-binary-table.
Binary Data Types
A binary string is a sequence of octets (or bytes). Binary strings are distinguished from character strings in two ways. First, binary strings specifically allow storing octets of value zero and other non-printable octets (usually, octets outside the decimal range 32 to 126). Character strings disallow zero octets, and also disallow any other octet values and sequences of octet values that are invalid according to the database’s selected character set encoding. Second, operations on binary strings process the actual bytes, whereas the processing of character strings depends on locale settings. In short, binary strings are appropriate for storing data that the programmer thinks of as raw bytes, whereas character strings are appropriate for storing text.
The bytea type supports two formats for input and output: hex format and PostgreSQL’s historical escape format. Both of these are always accepted on input. The output format depends on the configuration parameter guc-bytea-output; the default is hex. (Note that the hex format was introduced in PostgreSQL 9.0; earlier versions and some tools don’t understand it.)
The SQL standard defines a different binary string type, called BLOB or BINARY LARGE OBJECT. The input format is different from bytea, but the provided functions and operators are mostly the same.
4.5.4.1. bytea Hex Format
The hex format encodes binary data as 2 hexadecimal digits per byte, most significant nibble first. The entire string is preceded by the sequence x (to distinguish it from the escape format). In some contexts, the initial backslash may need to be escaped by doubling it (see sql-syntax-strings). For input, the hexadecimal digits can be either upper or lower case, and whitespace is permitted between digit pairs (but not within a digit pair nor in the starting x sequence). The hex format is compatible with a wide range of external applications and protocols, and it tends to be faster to convert than the escape format, so its use is preferred.
Example:
SELECT '\xDEADBEEF';
4.5.4.2. bytea Escape Format
The escape format is the traditional PostgreSQL format for the bytea type. It takes the approach of representing a binary string as a sequence of ASCII characters, while converting those bytes that cannot be represented as an ASCII character into special escape sequences. If, from the point of view of the application, representing bytes as characters makes sense, then this representation can be convenient. But in practice it is usually confusing because it fuzzes up the distinction between binary strings and character strings, and also the particular escape mechanism that was chosen is somewhat unwieldy. Therefore, this format should probably be avoided for most new applications.
When entering bytea values in escape format, octets of certain values must be escaped, while all octet values can be escaped. In general, to escape an octet, convert it into its three-digit octal value and precede it by a backslash. Backslash itself (octet decimal value 92) can alternatively be represented by double backslashes. datatype-binary-sqlesc shows the characters that must be escaped, and gives the alternative escape sequences where applicable.
bytea Literal Escaped Octets
The requirement to escape non-printable octets varies depending on locale settings. In some instances you can get away with leaving them unescaped.
The reason that single quotes must be doubled, as shown in datatype-binary-sqlesc, is that this is true for any string literal in an SQL command. The generic string-literal parser consumes the outermost single quotes and reduces any pair of single quotes to one data character. What the bytea input function sees is just one single quote, which it treats as a plain data character. However, the bytea input function treats backslashes as special, and the other behaviors shown in datatype-binary-sqlesc are implemented by that function.
In some contexts, backslashes must be doubled compared to what is shown above, because the generic string-literal parser will also reduce pairs of backslashes to one data character; see sql-syntax-strings.
Bytea octets are output in hex format by default. If you change guc-bytea-output to escape, non-printable octets are converted to their equivalent three-digit octal value and preceded by one backslash. Most printable octets are output by their standard representation in the client character set, e.g.:
SET bytea_output = 'escape';
SELECT 'abc \153\154\155 \052\251\124'::bytea;
bytea
----------------
abc klm *\251T
The octet with decimal value 92 (backslash) is doubled in the output. Details are in datatype-binary-resesc.
bytea Output Escaped Octets
Depending on the front end to PostgreSQL you use, you might have additional work to do in terms of escaping and unescaping bytea strings. For example, you might also have to escape line feeds and carriage returns if your interface automatically translates these.
4.5.5. Date/Time Types
PostgreSQL supports the full set of SQL date and time types, shown in datatype-datetime-table. The operations available on these data types are described in functions-datetime. Dates are counted according to the Gregorian calendar, even in years before that calendar was introduced (see datetime-units-history for more information).
Date/Time Types
Примечание
The SQL standard requires that writing just timestamp be equivalent to timestamp without time zone, and PostgreSQL honors that behavior. timestamptz is accepted as an abbreviation for timestamp with time zone; this is a PostgreSQL extension.
time, timestamp, and interval accept an optional precision value p which specifies the number of fractional digits retained in the seconds field. By default, there is no explicit bound on precision. The allowed range of p is from 0 to 6.
The interval type has an additional option, which is to restrict the set of stored fields by writing one of these phrases:
YEAR MONTH DAY HOUR MINUTE SECOND YEAR TO MONTH DAY TO HOUR DAY TO MINUTE DAY TO SECOND HOUR TO MINUTE HOUR TO SECOND MINUTE TO SECOND
Note that if both fields and p are specified, the fields must include SECOND, since the precision applies only to the seconds.
The type time with time zone is defined by the SQL standard, but the definition exhibits properties which lead to questionable usefulness. In most cases, a combination of date, time, timestamp without time zone, and timestamp with time zone should provide a complete range of date/time functionality required by any application.
4.5.5.1. Date/Time Input
Date and time input is accepted in almost any reasonable format, including ISO 8601, SQL-compatible, traditional POSTGRES, and others. For some formats, ordering of day, month, and year in date input is ambiguous and there is support for specifying the expected ordering of these fields. Set the guc-datestyle parameter to MDY to select month-day-year interpretation, DMY to select day-month-year interpretation, or YMD to select year-month-day interpretation.
PostgreSQL is more flexible in handling date/time input than the SQL standard requires. See datetime-appendix for the exact parsing rules of date/time input and for the recognized text fields including months, days of the week, and time zones.
Remember that any date or time literal input needs to be enclosed in single quotes, like text strings. Refer to sql-syntax-constants-generic for more information. SQL requires the following syntax
type [ (p) ] 'value'
where p is an optional precision
specification giving the number of fractional digits in the seconds field. Precision can be specified for time, timestamp, and interval types, and can range from 0 to 6. If no precision is specified in a constant specification, it defaults to the precision of the literal value (but not more than 6 digits).
4.5.5.1.1. Dates
datatype-datetime-date-table shows some possible inputs for the date type.
Date Input
4.5.5.1.2. Times
The time-of-day types are time [ (p) ] without time zone and time [ (p) ] with time zone. time alone is equivalent to time without time zone.
Valid input for these types consists of a time of day followed by an optional time zone. (See datatype-datetime-time-table and datatype-timezone-table.) If a time zone is specified in the input for time without time zone, it is silently ignored. You can also specify a date but it will be ignored, except when you use a time zone name that involves a daylight-savings rule, such as America/New_York. In this case specifying the date is required in order to determine whether standard or daylight-savings time applies. The appropriate time zone offset is recorded in the time with time zone value.
Time Input
Time Zone Input
Refer to datatype-timezones for more information on how to specify time zones.
4.5.5.1.3. Time Stamps
Valid input for the time stamp types consists of the concatenation of a date and a time, followed by an optional time zone, followed by an optional AD or BC. (Alternatively, AD/BC can appear before the time zone, but this is not the preferred ordering.) Thus:
1999-01-08 04:05:06
and:
1999-01-08 04:05:06 -8:00
are valid values, which follow the ISO 8601 standard. In addition, the common format:
January 8 04:05:06 1999 PST
is supported.
The SQL standard differentiates timestamp without time zone and timestamp with time zone literals by the presence of a + or - symbol and time zone offset after the time. Hence, according to the standard,
TIMESTAMP '2004-10-19 10:23:54'
is a timestamp without time zone, while
TIMESTAMP '2004-10-19 10:23:54+02'
is a timestamp with time zone. PostgreSQL never examines the content of a literal string before determining its type, and therefore will treat both of the above as timestamp without time zone. To ensure that a literal is treated as timestamp with time zone, give it the correct explicit type:
TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2004-10-19 10:23:54+02'
In a literal that has been determined to be timestamp without time zone, PostgreSQL will silently ignore any time zone indication. That is, the resulting value is derived from the date/time fields in the input value, and is not adjusted for time zone.
For timestamp with time zone, the internally stored value is always in UTC (Universal Coordinated Time, traditionally known as Greenwich Mean Time, GMT). An input value that has an explicit time zone specified is converted to UTC using the appropriate offset for that time zone. If no time zone is stated in the input string, then it is assumed to be in the time zone indicated by the system’s guc-timezone parameter, and is converted to UTC using the offset for the timezone zone.
When a timestamp with time zone value is output, it is always converted from UTC to the current timezone zone, and displayed as local time in that zone. To see the time in another time zone, either change timezone or use the AT TIME ZONE construct (see functions-datetime-zoneconvert).
Conversions between timestamp without time zone and timestamp with time zone normally assume that the timestamp without time zone value should be taken or given as timezone local time. A different time zone can be specified for the conversion using AT TIME ZONE.
4.5.5.1.4. Special Values
PostgreSQL supports several special date/time input values for convenience, as shown in datatype-datetime-special-table. The values infinity and -infinity are specially represented inside the system and will be displayed unchanged; but the others are simply notational shorthands that will be converted to ordinary date/time values when read. (In particular, now and related strings are converted to a specific time value as soon as they are read.) All of these values need to be enclosed in single quotes when used as constants in SQL commands.
Special Date/Time Inputs
The following SQL-compatible functions can also be used to obtain the current time value for the corresponding data type: CURRENT_DATE, CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, LOCALTIME, LOCALTIMESTAMP. (See functions-datetime-current.) Note that these are SQL functions and are not recognized in data input strings.
Осторожно
While the input strings now, today, tomorrow, and yesterday are fine to use in interactive SQL commands, they can have surprising behavior when the command is saved to be executed later, for example in prepared statements, views, and function definitions. The string can be converted to a specific time value that continues to be used long after it becomes stale. Use one of the SQL functions instead in such contexts. For example, CURRENT_DATE + 1 is safer than „tomorrow“::date.
4.5.5.2. Date/Time Output
The output format of the date/time types can be set to one of the four styles ISO 8601, SQL (Ingres), traditional POSTGRES (Unix date format), or German. The default is the ISO format. (The SQL standard requires the use of the ISO 8601 format. The name of the SQL output format is a historical accident.) datatype-datetime-output-table shows examples of each output style. The output of the date and time types is generally only the date or time part in accordance with the given examples. However, the POSTGRES style outputs date-only values in ISO format.
Date/Time Output Styles
Примечание
ISO 8601 specifies the use of uppercase letter T to separate the date and time. PostgreSQL accepts that format on input, but on output it uses a space rather than T, as shown above. This is for readability and for consistency with RFC 3339 as well as some other database systems.
In the SQL and POSTGRES styles, day appears before month if DMY field ordering has been specified, otherwise month appears before day. (See datatype-datetime-input for how this setting also affects interpretation of input values.) datatype-datetime-output2-table shows examples.
Date Order Conventions
In the ISO style, the time zone is always shown as a signed numeric offset from UTC, with positive sign used for zones east of Greenwich. The offset will be shown as hh (hours only) if it is an integral number of hours, else as hh:mm if it is an integral number of minutes, else as hh:mm:ss. (The third case is not possible with any modern time zone standard, but it can appear when working with timestamps that predate the adoption of standardized time zones.) In the other date styles, the time zone is shown as an alphabetic abbreviation if one is in common use in the current zone. Otherwise it appears as a signed numeric offset in ISO 8601 basic format (hh or hhmm).
The date/time style can be selected by the user using the SET datestyle command, the guc-datestyle parameter in the postgresql.conf configuration file, or the PGDATESTYLE environment variable on the server or client.
The formatting function to_char (see functions-formatting) is also available as a more flexible way to format date/time output.
4.5.5.3. Time Zones
Time zones, and time-zone conventions, are influenced by political decisions, not just earth geometry. Time zones around the world became somewhat standardized during the 1900s, but continue to be prone to arbitrary changes, particularly with respect to daylight-savings rules. PostgreSQL uses the widely-used IANA (Olson) time zone database for information about historical time zone rules. For times in the future, the assumption is that the latest known rules for a given time zone will continue to be observed indefinitely far into the future.
PostgreSQL endeavors to be compatible with the SQL standard definitions for typical usage. However, the SQL standard has an odd mix of date and time types and capabilities. Two obvious problems are:
Although the date type cannot have an associated time zone, the time type can. Time zones in the real world have little meaning unless associated with a date as well as a time, since the offset can vary through the year with daylight-saving time boundaries.
The default time zone is specified as a constant numeric offset from UTC. It is therefore impossible to adapt to daylight-saving time when doing date/time arithmetic across DST boundaries.
To address these difficulties, we recommend using date/time types that contain both date and time when using time zones. We do not recommend using the type time with time zone (though it is supported by PostgreSQL for legacy applications and for compliance with the SQL standard). PostgreSQL assumes your local time zone for any type containing only date or time.
All timezone-aware dates and times are stored internally in UTC. They are converted to local time in the zone specified by the guc-timezone configuration parameter before being displayed to the client.
PostgreSQL allows you to specify time zones in three different forms:
A full time zone name, for example America/New_York. The recognized time zone names are listed in the pg_timezone_names view (see view-pg-timezone-names). PostgreSQL uses the widely-used IANA time zone data for this purpose, so the same time zone names are also recognized by other software.
A time zone abbreviation, for example PST. Such a specification merely defines a particular offset from UTC, in contrast to full time zone names which can imply a set of daylight savings transition rules as well. The recognized abbreviations are listed in the pg_timezone_abbrevs view (see view-pg-timezone-abbrevs). You cannot set the configuration parameters guc-timezone or guc-log-timezone to a time zone abbreviation, but you can use abbreviations in date/time input values and with the AT TIME ZONE operator.
In addition to the timezone names and abbreviations, PostgreSQL will accept POSIX-style time zone specifications, as described in datetime-posix-timezone-specs. This option is not normally preferable to using a named time zone, but it may be necessary if no suitable IANA time zone entry is available.
In short, this is the difference between abbreviations and full names: abbreviations represent a specific offset from UTC, whereas many of the full names imply a local daylight-savings time rule, and so have two possible UTC offsets. As an example, 2014-06-04 12:00 America/New_York represents noon local time in New York, which for this particular date was Eastern Daylight Time (UTC-4). So 2014-06-04 12:00 EDT specifies that same time instant. But 2014-06-04 12:00 EST specifies noon Eastern Standard Time (UTC-5), regardless of whether daylight savings was nominally in effect on that date.
To complicate matters, some jurisdictions have used the same timezone abbreviation to mean different UTC offsets at different times; for example, in Moscow MSK has meant UTC+3 in some years and UTC+4 in others. PostgreSQL interprets such abbreviations according to whatever they meant (or had most recently meant) on the specified date; but, as with the EST example above, this is not necessarily the same as local civil time on that date.
In all cases, timezone names and abbreviations are recognized case-insensitively. (This is a change from PostgreSQL versions prior to 8.2, which were case-sensitive in some contexts but not others.)
Neither timezone names nor abbreviations are hard-wired into the server; they are obtained from configuration files stored under …/share/timezone/ and …/share/timezonesets/ of the installation directory (see datetime-config-files).
The guc-timezone configuration parameter can be set in the file postgresql.conf, or in any of the other standard ways described in runtime-config. There are also some special ways to set it:
The SQL command SET TIME ZONE sets the time zone for the session. This is an alternative spelling of SET TIMEZONE TO with a more SQL-spec-compatible syntax.
The PGTZ environment variable is used by libpq clients to send a SET TIME ZONE command to the server upon connection.
4.5.5.4. Interval Input
interval values can be written using the following verbose syntax:
@ quantity unit quantity unit... direction
where quantity is a number (possibly signed); unit is microsecond, millisecond, second, minute, hour, day, week, month, year, decade, century, millennium, or abbreviations or plurals of these units; direction can be ago or empty. The at sign (@) is optional noise. The amounts of the different units are implicitly added with appropriate sign accounting. ago negates all the fields. This syntax is also used for interval output, if guc-intervalstyle is set to postgres_verbose.
Quantities of days, hours, minutes, and seconds can be specified without explicit unit markings. For example, „1 12:59:10“ is read the same as „1 day 12 hours 59 min 10 sec“. Also, a combination of years and months can be specified with a dash; for example „200-10“ is read the same as „200 years 10 months“. (These shorter forms are in fact the only ones allowed by the SQL standard, and are used for output when IntervalStyle is set to sql_standard.)
Interval values can also be written as ISO 8601 time intervals, using either the format with designators of the standard’s section 4.4.3.2 or the alternative format of section 4.4.3.3. The format with designators looks like this:
P quantity unit quantity unit ... T quantity unit ...
The string must start with a **P**, and may include a
T that introduces the time-of-day units. The available unit abbreviations are given in datatype-interval-iso8601-units. Units may be omitted, and may be specified in any order, but units smaller than a day must appear after T. In particular, the meaning of M depends on whether it is before or after T.
ISO 8601 Interval Unit Abbreviations
In the alternative format:
P years-months-days T hours:minutes:seconds
the string must begin with **P**, and a
T separates the date and time parts of the interval. The values are given as numbers similar to ISO 8601 dates.
When writing an interval constant with a fields specification, or when assigning a string to an interval column that was defined with a fields specification, the interpretation of unmarked quantities depends on the fields. For example INTERVAL „1“ YEAR is read as 1 year, whereas INTERVAL „1“ means 1 second. Also, field values to the right of the least significant field allowed by the fields specification are silently discarded. For example, writing INTERVAL „1 day 2:03:04“ HOUR TO MINUTE results in dropping the seconds field, but not the day field.
According to the SQL standard all fields of an interval value must have the same sign, so a leading negative sign applies to all fields; for example the negative sign in the interval literal „-1 2:03:04“ applies to both the days and hour/minute/second parts. PostgreSQL allows the fields to have different signs, and traditionally treats each field in the textual representation as independently signed, so that the hour/minute/second part is considered positive in this example. If IntervalStyle is set to sql_standard then a leading sign is considered to apply to all fields (but only if no additional signs appear). Otherwise the traditional PostgreSQL interpretation is used. To avoid ambiguity, it’s recommended to attach an explicit sign to each field if any field is negative.
Field values can have fractional parts: for example, „1.5 weeks“ or „01:02:03.45“. However, because interval internally stores only three integer units (months, days, microseconds), fractional units must be spilled to smaller units. Fractional parts of units greater than months are rounded to be an integer number of months, e.g. „1.5 years“ becomes „1 year 6 mons“. Fractional parts of weeks and days are computed to be an integer number of days and microseconds, assuming 30 days per month and 24 hours per day, e.g., „1.75 months“ becomes 1 mon 22 days 12:00:00. Only seconds will ever be shown as fractional on output.
datatype-interval-input-examples shows some examples of valid interval input.
Interval Input
Internally interval values are stored as months, days, and microseconds. This is done because the number of days in a month varies, and a day can have 23 or 25 hours if a daylight savings time adjustment is involved. The months and days fields are integers while the microseconds field can store fractional seconds. Because intervals are usually created from constant strings or timestamp subtraction, this storage method works well in most cases, but can cause unexpected results:
SELECT EXTRACT(hours from '80 minutes'::interval);
date_part
-----------
1
SELECT EXTRACT(days from '80 hours'::interval);
date_part
-----------
0
Functions justify_days and justify_hours are available for adjusting days and hours that overflow their normal ranges.
4.5.5.5. Interval Output
The output format of the interval type can be set to one of the four styles sql_standard, postgres, postgres_verbose, or iso_8601, using the command SET intervalstyle. The default is the postgres format. interval-style-output-table shows examples of each output style.
The sql_standard style produces output that conforms to the SQL standard’s specification for interval literal strings, if the interval value meets the standard’s restrictions (either year-month only or day-time only, with no mixing of positive and negative components). Otherwise the output looks like a standard year-month literal string followed by a day-time literal string, with explicit signs added to disambiguate mixed-sign intervals.
The output of the postgres style matches the output of PostgreSQL releases prior to 8.4 when the guc-datestyle parameter was set to ISO.
The output of the postgres_verbose style matches the output of PostgreSQL releases prior to 8.4 when the DateStyle parameter was set to non-ISO output.
The output of the iso_8601 style matches the format with designators described in section 4.4.3.2 of the ISO 8601 standard.
Interval Output Style Examples
4.5.6. Boolean Type
PostgreSQL provides the standard SQL type boolean; see datatype-boolean-table. The boolean type can have several states: true, false, and a third state, unknown, which is represented by the SQL null value.
Boolean Data Type
Boolean constants can be represented in SQL queries by the SQL key words TRUE, FALSE, and NULL.
The datatype input function for type boolean accepts these string representations for the true state:
**true**
**yes**
**on**
**1**
and these representations for the false state:
**false**
**no**
**off**
**0**
Unique prefixes of these strings are also accepted, for example t or n. Leading or trailing whitespace is ignored, and case does not matter.
The datatype output function for type boolean always emits either t or f, as shown in datatype-boolean-example.
CREATE TABLE test1 (a boolean, b text);
INSERT INTO test1 VALUES (TRUE, 'sic est');
INSERT INTO test1 VALUES (FALSE, 'non est');
SELECT * FROM test1;
a | b
---+---------
t | sic est
f | non est
SELECT * FROM test1 WHERE a;
a | b
---+---------
t | sic est
The key words TRUE and FALSE are the preferred (SQL-compliant) method for writing Boolean constants in SQL queries. But you can also use the string representations by following the generic string-literal constant syntax described in sql-syntax-constants-generic, for example „yes“::boolean.
Note that the parser automatically understands that TRUE and FALSE are of type boolean, but this is not so for NULL because that can have any type. So in some contexts you might have to cast NULL to boolean explicitly, for example NULL::boolean. Conversely, the cast can be omitted from a string-literal Boolean value in contexts where the parser can deduce that the literal must be of type boolean.
4.5.7. Enumerated Types
Enumerated (enum) types are data types that comprise a static, ordered set of values. They are equivalent to the enum types supported in a number of programming languages. An example of an enum type might be the days of the week, or a set of status values for a piece of data.
4.5.7.1. Declaration of Enumerated Types
Enum types are created using the sql-createtype command, for example:
CREATE TYPE mood AS ENUM ('sad', 'ok', 'happy');
Once created, the enum type can be used in table and function definitions much like any other type:
CREATE TYPE mood AS ENUM ('sad', 'ok', 'happy');
CREATE TABLE person (
name text,
current_mood mood
);
INSERT INTO person VALUES ('Moe', 'happy');
SELECT * FROM person WHERE current_mood = 'happy';
name | current_mood
------+--------------
Moe | happy
(1 row)
4.5.7.2. Ordering
The ordering of the values in an enum type is the order in which the values were listed when the type was created. All standard comparison operators and related aggregate functions are supported for enums. For example:
INSERT INTO person VALUES ('Larry', 'sad');
INSERT INTO person VALUES ('Curly', 'ok');
SELECT * FROM person WHERE current_mood > 'sad';
name | current_mood
-------+--------------
Moe | happy
Curly | ok
(2 rows)
SELECT * FROM person WHERE current_mood > 'sad' ORDER BY current_mood;
name | current_mood
-------+--------------
Curly | ok
Moe | happy
(2 rows)
SELECT name
FROM person
WHERE current_mood = (SELECT MIN(current_mood) FROM person);
name
-------
Larry
(1 row)
4.5.7.3. Type Safety
Each enumerated data type is separate and cannot be compared with other enumerated types. See this example:
CREATE TYPE happiness AS ENUM ('happy', 'very happy', 'ecstatic');
CREATE TABLE holidays (
num_weeks integer,
happiness happiness
);
INSERT INTO holidays(num_weeks,happiness) VALUES (4, 'happy');
INSERT INTO holidays(num_weeks,happiness) VALUES (6, 'very happy');
INSERT INTO holidays(num_weeks,happiness) VALUES (8, 'ecstatic');
INSERT INTO holidays(num_weeks,happiness) VALUES (2, 'sad');
ERROR: invalid input value for enum happiness: "sad"
SELECT person.name, holidays.num_weeks FROM person, holidays
WHERE person.current_mood = holidays.happiness;
ERROR: operator does not exist: mood = happiness
If you really need to do something like that, you can either write a custom operator or add explicit casts to your query:
SELECT person.name, holidays.num_weeks FROM person, holidays
WHERE person.current_mood::text = holidays.happiness::text;
name | num_weeks
------+-----------
Moe | 4
(1 row)
4.5.7.4. Implementation Details
Enum labels are case sensitive, so „happy“ is not the same as „HAPPY“. White space in the labels is significant too.
Although enum types are primarily intended for static sets of values, there is support for adding new values to an existing enum type, and for renaming values (see sql-altertype). Existing values cannot be removed from an enum type, nor can the sort ordering of such values be changed, short of dropping and re-creating the enum type.
An enum value occupies four bytes on disk. The length of an enum value’s textual label is limited by the NAMEDATALEN setting compiled into PostgreSQL; in standard builds this means at most 63 bytes.
The translations from internal enum values to textual labels are kept in the system catalog
linkend=»catalog-pg-enum»>**pg_enum**.
Querying this catalog directly can be useful.
4.5.8. Geometric Types
Geometric data types represent two-dimensional spatial objects. datatype-geo-table shows the geometric types available in PostgreSQL.
Geometric Types
A rich set of functions and operators is available to perform various geometric operations such as scaling, translation, rotation, and determining intersections. They are explained in functions-geometry.
4.5.8.1. Points
Points are the fundamental two-dimensional building block for geometric types. Values of type point are specified using either of the following syntaxes:
( x , y )
x , y
where x and y are the respective coordinates, as floating-point numbers.
Points are output using the first syntax.
4.5.8.2. Lines
Lines are represented by the linear equation Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are not both zero. Values of type line are input and output in the following form:
{ A, B, C }
Alternatively, any of the following forms can be used for input:
[ ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) ]
( ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) )
( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 )
x1 , y1 , x2 , y2
where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are two different points on the line.
4.5.8.3. Line Segments
Line segments are represented by pairs of points that are the endpoints of the segment. Values of type lseg are specified using any of the following syntaxes:
[ ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) ]
( ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) )
( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 )
x1 , y1 , x2 , y2
where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are the end points of the line segment.
Line segments are output using the first syntax.
4.5.8.4. Boxes
Boxes are represented by pairs of points that are opposite corners of the box. Values of type box are specified using any of the following syntaxes:
( ( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) )
( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 )
x1 , y1 , x2 , y2
where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are any two opposite corners of the box.
Boxes are output using the second syntax.
Any two opposite corners can be supplied on input, but the values will be reordered as needed to store the upper right and lower left corners, in that order.
4.5.8.5. Paths
Paths are represented by lists of connected points. Paths can be open, where the first and last points in the list are considered not connected, or closed, where the first and last points are considered connected.
Values of type path are specified using any of the following syntaxes:
[ ( x1 , y1 ) , ... , ( xn , yn ) ]
( ( x1 , y1 ) , ... , ( xn , yn ) )
( x1 , y1 ) , ... , ( xn , yn )
( x1 , y1 , ... , xn , yn )
x1 , y1 , ... , xn , yn
where the points are the end points of the line segments comprising the path. Square brackets ([]) indicate an open path, while parentheses (()) indicate a closed path. When the outermost parentheses are omitted, as in the third through fifth syntaxes, a closed path is assumed.
Paths are output using the first or second syntax, as appropriate.
4.5.8.6. Polygons
Polygons are represented by lists of points (the vertexes of the polygon). Polygons are very similar to closed paths; the essential difference is that a polygon is considered to include the area within it, while a path is not.
Values of type polygon are specified using any of the following syntaxes:
( ( x1 , y1 ) , ... , ( xn , yn ) )
( x1 , y1 ) , ... , ( xn , yn )
( x1 , y1 , ... , xn , yn )
x1 , y1 , ... , xn , yn
where the points are the end points of the line segments comprising the boundary of the polygon.
Polygons are output using the first syntax.
4.5.8.7. Circles
Circles are represented by a center point and radius. Values of type circle are specified using any of the following syntaxes:
.. toctree::
:maxdepth: 3
lt
( x , y ) , r >
( ( x , y ) , r )
( x , y ) , r
x , y , r
where (x,y) is the center point and r is the radius of the circle.
Circles are output using the first syntax.
4.5.9. Network Address Types
PostgreSQL offers data types to store IPv4, IPv6, and MAC addresses, as shown in datatype-net-types-table. It is better to use these types instead of plain text types to store network addresses, because these types offer input error checking and specialized operators and functions (see functions-net).
Network Address Types
When sorting inet or cidr data types, IPv4 addresses will always sort before IPv6 addresses, including IPv4 addresses encapsulated or mapped to IPv6 addresses, such as ::10.2.3.4 or ::ffff:10.4.3.2.
4.5.9.1. inet
The inet type holds an IPv4 or IPv6 host address, and optionally its subnet, all in one field. The subnet is represented by the number of network address bits present in the host address (the netmask). If the netmask is 32 and the address is IPv4, then the value does not indicate a subnet, only a single host. In IPv6, the address length is 128 bits, so 128 bits specify a unique host address. Note that if you want to accept only networks, you should use the cidr type rather than inet.
The input format for this type is address/y where address is an IPv4 or IPv6 address and y is the number of bits in the netmask. If the /y portion is omitted, the netmask is taken to be 32 for IPv4 or 128 for IPv6, so the value represents just a single host. On display, the /y portion is suppressed if the netmask specifies a single host.
4.5.9.2. cidr
The cidr type holds an IPv4 or IPv6 network specification. Input and output formats follow Classless Internet Domain Routing conventions. The format for specifying networks is address/y where address is the network’s lowest address represented as an IPv4 or IPv6 address, and y is the number of bits in the netmask. If y is omitted, it is calculated using assumptions from the older classful network numbering system, except it will be at least large enough to include all of the octets written in the input. It is an error to specify a network address that has bits set to the right of the specified netmask.
datatype-net-cidr-table shows some examples.
cidr Type Input Examples
4.5.9.3. inet vs. cidr
The essential difference between inet and cidr data types is that inet accepts values with nonzero bits to the right of the netmask, whereas cidr does not. For example, 192.168.0.1/24 is valid for inet but not for cidr.
Совет
If you do not like the output format for inet or cidr values, try the functions host, text, and abbrev.
4.5.9.4. macaddr
The macaddr type stores MAC addresses, known for example from Ethernet card hardware addresses (although MAC addresses are used for other purposes as well). Input is accepted in the following formats:
**'08:00:2b:01:02:03'**
**'08-00-2b-01-02-03'**
**'08002b:010203'**
**'08002b-010203'**
**'0800.2b01.0203'**
**'0800-2b01-0203'**
**'08002b010203'**
These examples all specify the same address. Upper and lower case is accepted for the digits a through f. Output is always in the first of the forms shown.
IEEE Standard 802-2001 specifies the second form shown (with hyphens) as the canonical form for MAC addresses, and specifies the first form (with colons) as used with bit-reversed, MSB-first notation, so that 08-00-2b-01-02-03 = 10:00:D4:80:40:C0. This convention is widely ignored nowadays, and it is relevant only for obsolete network protocols (such as Token Ring). PostgreSQL makes no provisions for bit reversal; all accepted formats use the canonical LSB order.
The remaining five input formats are not part of any standard.
4.5.9.5. macaddr8
The macaddr8 type stores MAC addresses in EUI-64 format, known for example from Ethernet card hardware addresses (although MAC addresses are used for other purposes as well). This type can accept both 6 and 8 byte length MAC addresses and stores them in 8 byte length format. MAC addresses given in 6 byte format will be stored in 8 byte length format with the 4th and 5th bytes set to FF and FE, respectively.
Note that IPv6 uses a modified EUI-64 format where the 7th bit should be set to one after the conversion from EUI-48. The function macaddr8_set7bit is provided to make this change.
Generally speaking, any input which is comprised of pairs of hex digits (on byte boundaries), optionally separated consistently by one of „:“, „-“ or „.“, is accepted. The number of hex digits must be either 16 (8 bytes) or 12 (6 bytes). Leading and trailing whitespace is ignored.
The following are examples of input formats that are accepted:
**'08:00:2b:01:02:03:04:05'**
**'08-00-2b-01-02-03-04-05'**
**'08002b:0102030405'**
**'08002b-0102030405'**
**'0800.2b01.0203.0405'**
**'0800-2b01-0203-0405'**
**'08002b01:02030405'**
**'08002b0102030405'**
These examples all specify the same address. Upper and lower case is accepted for the digits a through f. Output is always in the first of the forms shown.
The last six input formats shown above are not part of any standard.
To convert a traditional 48 bit MAC address in EUI-48 format to modified EUI-64 format to be included as the host portion of an IPv6 address, use macaddr8_set7bit as shown:
SELECT macaddr8_set7bit('08:00:2b:01:02:03');
macaddr8_set7bit
-------------------------
0a:00:2b:ff:fe:01:02:03
(1 row)
4.5.10. Bit String Types
Bit strings are strings of 1’s and 0’s. They can be used to store or visualize bit masks. There are two SQL bit types: bit(n) and bit varying(n), where n is a positive integer.
bit type data must match the length n exactly; it is an error to attempt to store shorter or longer bit strings. bit varying data is of variable length up to the maximum length n; longer strings will be rejected. Writing bit without a length is equivalent to bit(1), while bit varying without a length specification means unlimited length.
Примечание
If one explicitly casts a bit-string value to bit(n), it will be truncated or zero-padded on the right to be exactly n bits, without raising an error. Similarly, if one explicitly casts a bit-string value to bit varying(n), it will be truncated on the right if it is more than n bits.
Refer to sql-syntax-bit-strings for information about the syntax of bit string constants. Bit-logical operators and string manipulation functions are available; see functions-bitstring.
CREATE TABLE test (a BIT(3), b BIT VARYING(5));
INSERT INTO test VALUES (B'101', B'00');
INSERT INTO test VALUES (B'10', B'101');
ERROR: bit string length 2 does not match type bit(3)INSERT INTO test VALUES (B'10'::bit(3), B'101');
SELECT * FROM test;
a | b
-----+-----
101 | 00
100 | 101
A bit string value requires 1 byte for each group of 8 bits, plus 5 or 8 bytes overhead depending on the length of the string (but long values may be compressed or moved out-of-line, as explained in datatype-character for character strings).
4.5.11. Text Search Types
PostgreSQL provides two data types that are designed to support full text search, which is the activity of searching through a collection of natural-language documents to locate those that best match a query. The tsvector type represents a document in a form optimized for text search; the tsquery type similarly represents a text query. textsearch provides a detailed explanation of this facility, and functions-textsearch summarizes the related functions and operators.
4.5.11.1. tsvector
A tsvector value is a sorted list of distinct lexemes, which are words that have been normalized to merge different variants of the same word (see textsearch for details). Sorting and duplicate-elimination are done automatically during input, as shown in this example:
SELECT 'a fat cat sat on a mat and ate a fat rat'::tsvector;
tsvector
----------------------------------------------------
'a' 'and' 'ate' 'cat' 'fat' 'mat' 'on' 'rat' 'sat'
To represent lexemes containing whitespace or punctuation, surround them with quotes:
SELECT $$the lexeme ' ' contains spaces$$::tsvector;
tsvector
-------------------------------------------
' ' 'contains' 'lexeme' 'spaces' 'the'
(We use dollar-quoted string literals in this example and the next one to avoid the confusion of having to double quote marks within the literals.) Embedded quotes and backslashes must be doubled:
SELECT $$the lexeme 'Joe''s' contains a quote$$::tsvector;
tsvector
------------------------------------------------
'Joe''s' 'a' 'contains' 'lexeme' 'quote' 'the'
Optionally, integer positions can be attached to lexemes:
SELECT 'a:1 fat:2 cat:3 sat:4 on:5 a:6 mat:7 and:8 ate:9 a:10 fat:11 rat:12'::tsvector;
tsvector
-------------------------------------------------------------------&zwsp;------------
'a':1,6,10 'and':8 'ate':9 'cat':3 'fat':2,11 'mat':7 'on':5 'rat':12 'sat':4
A position normally indicates the source word’s location in the document. Positional information can be used for proximity ranking. Position values can range from 1 to 16383; larger numbers are silently set to 16383. Duplicate positions for the same lexeme are discarded.
Lexemes that have positions can further be labeled with a weight, which can be A, B, C, or D. D is the default and hence is not shown on output:
SELECT 'a:1A fat:2B,4C cat:5D'::tsvector;
tsvector
----------------------------
'a':1A 'cat':5 'fat':2B,4C
Weights are typically used to reflect document structure, for example by marking title words differently from body words. Text search ranking functions can assign different priorities to the different weight markers.
It is important to understand that the tsvector type itself does not perform any word normalization; it assumes the words it is given are normalized appropriately for the application. For example,
SELECT 'The Fat Rats'::tsvector;
tsvector
--------------------
'Fat' 'Rats' 'The'
For most English-text-searching applications the above words would be considered non-normalized, but tsvector doesn’t care. Raw document text should usually be passed through to_tsvector to normalize the words appropriately for searching:
SELECT to_tsvector('english', 'The Fat Rats');
to_tsvector
-----------------
'fat':2 'rat':3
Again, see textsearch for more detail.
4.5.11.2. tsquery
A tsquery value stores lexemes that are to be searched for, and can combine them using the Boolean operators & (AND), | (OR), and ! (NOT), as well as the phrase search operator <-> (FOLLOWED BY). There is also a variant <N> of the FOLLOWED BY operator, where N is an integer constant that specifies the distance between the two lexemes being searched for. <-> is equivalent to <1>.
Parentheses can be used to enforce grouping of these operators. In the absence of parentheses, ! (NOT) binds most tightly, <-> (FOLLOWED BY) next most tightly, then & (AND), with | (OR) binding the least tightly.
Here are some examples:
SELECT 'fat & rat'::tsquery;
tsquery
---------------
'fat' & 'rat'
SELECT 'fat & (rat | cat)'::tsquery;
tsquery
---------------------------
'fat' & ( 'rat' | 'cat' )
SELECT 'fat & rat & ! cat'::tsquery;
tsquery
------------------------
'fat' & 'rat' & !'cat'
Optionally, lexemes in a tsquery can be labeled with one or more weight letters, which restricts them to match only tsvector lexemes with one of those weights:
SELECT 'fat:ab & cat'::tsquery;
tsquery
------------------
'fat':AB & 'cat'
Also, lexemes in a tsquery can be labeled with * to specify prefix matching:
SELECT 'super:*'::tsquery;
tsquery
-----------
'super':*
This query will match any word in a **tsvector** that begins
with super.
Quoting rules for lexemes are the same as described previously for lexemes in tsvector; and, as with tsvector, any required normalization of words must be done before converting to the tsquery type. The to_tsquery function is convenient for performing such normalization:
SELECT to_tsquery('Fat:ab & Cats');
to_tsquery
------------------
'fat':AB & 'cat'
Note that to_tsquery will process prefixes in the same way as other words, which means this comparison returns true:
SELECT to_tsvector( 'postgraduate' ) @@ to_tsquery( 'postgres:*' );
?column?
----------
t
because **postgres** gets stemmed to **postgr**:
SELECT to_tsvector( 'postgraduate' ), to_tsquery( 'postgres:*' );
to_tsvector | to_tsquery
---------------+------------
'postgradu':1 | 'postgr':*
which will match the stemmed form of **postgraduate**.
4.5.12. UUID Type
The data type uuid stores Universally Unique Identifiers (UUID) as defined by RFC 4122, ISO/IEC 9834-8:2005, and related standards. (Some systems refer to this data type as a globally unique identifier, or GUID,instead.) This identifier is a 128-bit quantity that is generated by an algorithm chosen to make it very unlikely that the same identifier will be generated by anyone else in the known universe using the same algorithm. Therefore, for distributed systems, these identifiers provide a better uniqueness guarantee than sequence generators, which are only unique within a single database.
A UUID is written as a sequence of lower-case hexadecimal digits, in several groups separated by hyphens, specifically a group of 8 digits followed by three groups of 4 digits followed by a group of 12 digits, for a total of 32 digits representing the 128 bits. An example of a UUID in this standard form is:
a0eebc99-9c0b-4ef8-bb6d-6bb9bd380a11
**PostgreSQL** also accepts the following
alternative forms for input: use of upper-case digits, the standard format surrounded by braces, omitting some or all hyphens, adding a hyphen after any group of four digits. Examples are:
A0EEBC99-9C0B-4EF8-BB6D-6BB9BD380A11
{a0eebc99-9c0b-4ef8-bb6d-6bb9bd380a11}
a0eebc999c0b4ef8bb6d6bb9bd380a11
a0ee-bc99-9c0b-4ef8-bb6d-6bb9-bd38-0a11
{a0eebc99-9c0b4ef8-bb6d6bb9-bd380a11}
Output is always in the standard form.
See functions-uuid for how to generate a UUID in PostgreSQL.
4.5.13. XML Type
The xml data type can be used to store XML data. Its advantage over storing XML data in a text field is that it checks the input values for well-formedness, and there are support functions to perform type-safe operations on it; see functions-xml. Use of this data type requires the installation to have been built with configure –with-libxml.
The xml type can store well-formed documents, as defined by the XML standard, as well as content fragments, which are defined by reference to the more permissive document node of the XQuery and XPath data model. Roughly, this means that content fragments can have more than one top-level element or character node. The expression xmlvalue IS DOCUMENT can be used to evaluate whether a particular xml value is a full document or only a content fragment.
Limits and compatibility notes for the xml data type can be found in xml-limits-conformance.
4.5.13.1. Creating XML Values
To produce a value of type xml from character data, use the function xmlparse:
XMLPARSE ( { DOCUMENT | CONTENT } value)
Examples:
XMLPARSE (DOCUMENT '<?xml version="1.0"?><book><title>Manual</title><chapter>...</chapter></book>')
XMLPARSE (CONTENT 'abc<foo>bar</foo><bar>foo</bar>')
While this is the only way to convert character strings into XML
values according to the SQL standard, the PostgreSQL-specific syntaxes:
xml '<foo>bar</foo>'
'<foo>bar</foo>'::xml
can also be used.
The xml type does not validate input values against a document type declaration (DTD), even when the input value specifies a DTD. There is also currently no built-in support for validating against other XML schema languages such as XML Schema.
The inverse operation, producing a character string value from xml, uses the function xmlserialize:
XMLSERIALIZE ( { DOCUMENT | CONTENT } value AS type )
type can be
character, character varying, or text (or an alias for one of those). Again, according to the SQL standard, this is the only way to convert between type xml and character types, but PostgreSQL also allows you to simply cast the value.
When a character string value is cast to or from type xml without going through XMLPARSE or XMLSERIALIZE, respectively, the choice of DOCUMENT versus CONTENT is determined by the XML option session configuration parameter, which can be set using the standard command:
SET XML OPTION { DOCUMENT | CONTENT };
or the more PostgreSQL-like syntax
SET xmloption TO { DOCUMENT | CONTENT };
The default is **CONTENT**, so all forms of XML
data are allowed.
4.5.13.2. Encoding Handling
Care must be taken when dealing with multiple character encodings on the client, server, and in the XML data passed through them. When using the text mode to pass queries to the server and query results to the client (which is the normal mode), PostgreSQL converts all character data passed between the client and the server and vice versa to the character encoding of the respective end; see multibyte. This includes string representations of XML values, such as in the above examples. This would ordinarily mean that encoding declarations contained in XML data can become invalid as the character data is converted to other encodings while traveling between client and server, because the embedded encoding declaration is not changed. To cope with this behavior, encoding declarations contained in character strings presented for input to the xml type are ignored, and content is assumed to be in the current server encoding. Consequently, for correct processing, character strings of XML data must be sent from the client in the current client encoding. It is the responsibility of the client to either convert documents to the current client encoding before sending them to the server, or to adjust the client encoding appropriately. On output, values of type xml will not have an encoding declaration, and clients should assume all data is in the current client encoding.
When using binary mode to pass query parameters to the server and query results back to the client, no encoding conversion is performed, so the situation is different. In this case, an encoding declaration in the XML data will be observed, and if it is absent, the data will be assumed to be in UTF-8 (as required by the XML standard; note that PostgreSQL does not support UTF-16). On output, data will have an encoding declaration specifying the client encoding, unless the client encoding is UTF-8, in which case it will be omitted.
Needless to say, processing XML data with PostgreSQL will be less error-prone and more efficient if the XML data encoding, client encoding, and server encoding are the same. Since XML data is internally processed in UTF-8, computations will be most efficient if the server encoding is also UTF-8.
Осторожно
Some XML-related functions may not work at all on non-ASCII data when the server encoding is not UTF-8. This is known to be an issue for xmltable() and xpath() in particular.
4.5.13.3. Accessing XML Values
The xml data type is unusual in that it does not provide any comparison operators. This is because there is no well-defined and universally useful comparison algorithm for XML data. One consequence of this is that you cannot retrieve rows by comparing an xml column against a search value. XML values should therefore typically be accompanied by a separate key field such as an ID. An alternative solution for comparing XML values is to convert them to character strings first, but note that character string comparison has little to do with a useful XML comparison method.
Since there are no comparison operators for the xml data type, it is not possible to create an index directly on a column of this type. If speedy searches in XML data are desired, possible workarounds include casting the expression to a character string type and indexing that, or indexing an XPath expression. Of course, the actual query would have to be adjusted to search by the indexed expression.
The text-search functionality in PostgreSQL can also be used to speed up full-document searches of XML data. The necessary preprocessing support is, however, not yet available in the PostgreSQL distribution.
- 4.5.13.3.3. Composite Types
- 4.5.13.3.4. Range Types
- 4.5.13.3.4.1. Built-in Range and Multirange Types
- 4.5.13.3.4.2. Examples
- 4.5.13.3.4.3. Inclusive and Exclusive Bounds
- 4.5.13.3.4.4. Infinite (Unbounded) Ranges
- 4.5.13.3.4.5. Range Input/Output
- 4.5.13.3.4.6. Constructing Ranges and Multiranges
- 4.5.13.3.4.7. Discrete Range Types
- 4.5.13.3.4.8. Defining New Range Types
- 4.5.13.3.4.9. Indexing
- 4.5.13.3.4.10. Constraints on Ranges
4.5.14. Domain Types
A domain is a user-defined data type that is based on another underlying type. Optionally, it can have constraints that restrict its valid values to a subset of what the underlying type would allow. Otherwise it behaves like the underlying type — for example, any operator or function that can be applied to the underlying type will work on the domain type. The underlying type can be any built-in or user-defined base type, enum type, array type, composite type, range type, or another domain.
For example, we could create a domain over integers that accepts only positive integers:
CREATE DOMAIN posint AS integer CHECK (VALUE > 0);
CREATE TABLE mytable (id posint);
INSERT INTO mytable VALUES(1); -- works
INSERT INTO mytable VALUES(-1); -- fails
When an operator or function of the underlying type is applied to a domain value, the domain is automatically down-cast to the underlying type. Thus, for example, the result of mytable.id - 1 is considered to be of type integer not posint. We could write (mytable.id - 1)::posint to cast the result back to posint, causing the domain’s constraints to be rechecked. In this case, that would result in an error if the expression had been applied to an id value of 1. Assigning a value of the underlying type to a field or variable of the domain type is allowed without writing an explicit cast, but the domain’s constraints will be checked.
For additional information see sql-createdomain.
4.5.15. Object Identifier Types
Object identifiers (OIDs) are used internally by PostgreSQL as primary keys for various system tables. Type oid represents an object identifier. There are also several alias types for oid, each named regsomething. datatype-oid-table shows an overview.
The oid type is currently implemented as an unsigned four-byte integer. Therefore, it is not large enough to provide database-wide uniqueness in large databases, or even in large individual tables.
The oid type itself has few operations beyond comparison. It can be cast to integer, however, and then manipulated using the standard integer operators. (Beware of possible signed-versus-unsigned confusion if you do this.)
The OID alias types have no operations of their own except for specialized input and output routines. These routines are able to accept and display symbolic names for system objects, rather than the raw numeric value that type oid would use. The alias types allow simplified lookup of OID values for objects. For example, to examine the pg_attribute rows related to a table mytable, one could write:
SELECT * FROM pg_attribute WHERE attrelid = 'mytable'::regclass;
rather than:
SELECT * FROM pg_attribute
WHERE attrelid = (SELECT oid FROM pg_class WHERE relname = 'mytable');
While that doesn't look all that bad by itself, it's still oversimplified.
A far more complicated sub-select would be needed to select the right OID if there are multiple tables named mytable in different schemas. The regclass input converter handles the table lookup according to the schema path setting, and so it does the right thing automatically. Similarly, casting a table’s OID to regclass is handy for symbolic display of a numeric OID.
Object Identifier Types
All of the OID alias types for objects that are grouped by namespace accept schema-qualified names, and will display schema-qualified names on output if the object would not be found in the current search path without being qualified. For example, myschema.mytable is acceptable input for regclass (if there is such a table). That value might be output as myschema.mytable, or just mytable, depending on the current search path. The regproc and regoper alias types will only accept input names that are unique (not overloaded), so they are of limited use; for most uses regprocedure or regoperator are more appropriate. For regoperator, unary operators are identified by writing NONE for the unused operand.
The input functions for these types allow whitespace between tokens, and will fold upper-case letters to lower case, except within double quotes; this is done to make the syntax rules similar to the way object names are written in SQL. Conversely, the output functions will use double quotes if needed to make the output be a valid SQL identifier. For example, the OID of a function named Foo (with upper case F) taking two integer arguments could be entered as „ «Foo» ( int, integer ) „::regprocedure. The output would look like «Foo»(integer,integer). Both the function name and the argument type names could be schema-qualified, too.
Many built-in PostgreSQL functions accept the OID of a table, or another kind of database object, and for convenience are declared as taking regclass (or the appropriate OID alias type). This means you do not have to look up the object’s OID by hand, but can just enter its name as a string literal. For example, the nextval(regclass) function takes a sequence relation’s OID, so you could call it like this:
nextval('foo') **operates on sequence **foo****
nextval('FOO') **same as above**
nextval('"Foo"') **operates on sequence **Foo****
nextval('myschema.foo') **operates on **myschema.foo****
nextval('"myschema".foo') **same as above**
nextval('foo') **searches search path for **foo****
Примечание
When you write the argument of such a function as an unadorned literal string, it becomes a constant of type regclass (or the appropriate type). Since this is really just an OID, it will track the originally identified object despite later renaming, schema reassignment, etc. This early binding behavior is usually desirable for object references in column defaults and views. But sometimes you might want late binding where the object reference is resolved at run time. To get late-binding behavior, force the constant to be stored as a text constant instead of regclass:
nextval('foo'::text) ****foo** is looked up at runtime**
The **to_regclass()** function and its siblings
can also be used to perform run-time lookups. See functions-info-catalog-table.
Another practical example of use of regclass is to look up the OID of a table listed in the information_schema views, which don’t supply such OIDs directly. One might for example wish to call the pg_relation_size() function, which requires the table OID. Taking the above rules into account, the correct way to do that is
SELECT table_schema, table_name,
pg_relation_size((quote_ident(table_schema) || '.' ||
quote_ident(table_name))::regclass)
FROM information_schema.tables
WHERE ...
The **quote_ident()** function will take care of
double-quoting the identifiers where needed. The seemingly easier
SELECT pg_relation_size(table_name)
FROM information_schema.tables
WHERE ...
is **not recommended**, because it will fail for
tables that are outside your search path or have names that require quoting.
An additional property of most of the OID alias types is the creation of dependencies. If a constant of one of these types appears in a stored expression (such as a column default expression or view), it creates a dependency on the referenced object. For example, if a column has a default expression nextval(„my_seq“::regclass), PostgreSQL understands that the default expression depends on the sequence my_seq, so the system will not let the sequence be dropped without first removing the default expression. The alternative of nextval(„my_seq“::text) does not create a dependency. (regrole is an exception to this property. Constants of this type are not allowed in stored expressions.)
Another identifier type used by the system is xid, or transaction (abbreviated xact) identifier. This is the data type of the system columns xmin and xmax. Transaction identifiers are 32-bit quantities. In some contexts, a 64-bit variant xid8 is used. Unlike xid values, xid8 values increase strictly monotonically and cannot be reused in the lifetime of a database cluster.
A third identifier type used by the system is cid, or command identifier. This is the data type of the system columns cmin and cmax. Command identifiers are also 32-bit quantities.
A final identifier type used by the system is tid, or tuple identifier (row identifier). This is the data type of the system column ctid. A tuple ID is a pair (block number, tuple index within block) that identifies the physical location of the row within its table.
(The system columns are further explained in ddl-system-columns.)
4.5.16. pg_lsn Type
The pg_lsn data type can be used to store LSN (Log Sequence Number) data which is a pointer to a location in the WAL. This type is a representation of XLogRecPtr and an internal system type of PostgreSQL.
Internally, an LSN is a 64-bit integer, representing a byte position in the write-ahead log stream. It is printed as two hexadecimal numbers of up to 8 digits each, separated by a slash; for example, 16/B374D848. The pg_lsn type supports the standard comparison operators, like = and >. Two LSNs can be subtracted using the - operator; the result is the number of bytes separating those write-ahead log locations. Also the number of bytes can be added into and subtracted from LSN using the +(pg_lsn,numeric) and -(pg_lsn,numeric) operators, respectively. Note that the calculated LSN should be in the range of pg_lsn type, i.e., between 0/0 and FFFFFFFF/FFFFFFFF.
4.5.17. Pseudo-Types
The PostgreSQL type system contains a number of special-purpose entries that are collectively called pseudo-types. A pseudo-type cannot be used as a column data type, but it can be used to declare a function’s argument or result type. Each of the available pseudo-types is useful in situations where a function’s behavior does not correspond to simply taking or returning a value of a specific SQL data type. datatype-pseudotypes-table lists the existing pseudo-types.
Pseudo-Types
Functions coded in C (whether built-in or dynamically loaded) can be declared to accept or return any of these pseudo-types. It is up to the function author to ensure that the function will behave safely when a pseudo-type is used as an argument type.
Functions coded in procedural languages can use pseudo-types only as allowed by their implementation languages. At present most procedural languages forbid use of a pseudo-type as an argument type, and allow only void and record as a result type (plus trigger or event_trigger when the function is used as a trigger or event trigger). Some also support polymorphic functions using the polymorphic pseudo-types, which are shown above and discussed in detail in extend-types-polymorphic.
The internal pseudo-type is used to declare functions that are meant only to be called internally by the database system, and not by direct invocation in an SQL query. If a function has at least one internal-type argument then it cannot be called from SQL. To preserve the type safety of this restriction it is important to follow this coding rule: do not create any function that is declared to return internal unless it has at least one internal argument.